Which medication is most associated with increased cardiovascular (CV) risk?

Cyclosporine is the medication most associated with increased cardiovascular risk. It is an immunosuppressant often used to prevent organ transplant rejection and to treat autoimmune conditions. One of its significant adverse effects is nephrotoxicity, which can lead to hypertension and an increased risk of cardiovascular events. Chronic kidney disease and hypertension are well-documented risk factors for cardiovascular disease, and cyclosporine's impact on kidney function can exacerbate these risks, thus increasing the likelihood of developing cardiovascular complications.

In contrast, while other medications listed may have some impact on cardiovascular health, they do not carry the same level of association with increased cardiovascular risk as cyclosporine does. For example, citalopram, an SSRI, has been studied for its safety profile regarding cardiovascular risk, and while there may be some considerations regarding QT prolongation, it is generally considered safer in terms of cardiovascular impact compared to cyclosporine. Haloperidol, an antipsychotic, can also lead to some cardiovascular effects, such as QT prolongation and potential for arrhythmias, but again, these risks are not as direct or significant as those associated with cyclosporine. Bromocriptine, a dopamine agonist, has been used in